Operant Conditioning

Even before the establishment of psychology as a discipline, philosophers and scientists were actively researching learning mechanisms. Debates about the nature of learning can be dated back to Ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates., Plato and Aristotle. The nature and processes of learning have always been a core theme in psychology. It continues to be a topic of debate to date. Modern psychology leans towards behaviourism and cognitivism. Most popular therapy techniques today are based on principles of behaviourism. One such theory is Operant Conditioning coined by B.F. Skinner. Operant Conditioning is still widely regarded as one of the most influential theories in understanding learning. 

What is Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs positive and negative reinforcements. The concept was introduced by Thorndike but was later worked on and refined by B.F Skinner, who is considered the father of Operant Conditioning. He based his theory on two assumptions: 

• Human behaviour occurs or is guided by its environment. 
• The result or consequence determines the chances of the behaviour reoccurring. 

Operant behaviour is controlled by its consequences (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013). Inspired by Thorndike’s puzzle boxes, he created what he called a lever box (American Psychologist Association, 2018). The design varied depending on the animal, but it always included a lever or key. The box was an enclosed space used to study behaviour.

When the lever is pressed, it dispenses some kind of reinforcement, for example- food, water, or electric shock. It is set up to record every response, along with a reinforcement schedule. Through his experiment, he discovered that behaviours followed by a favourable response have higher chances of being repeated, whereas those followed by an unfavourable response have fewer chances of reoccurring. 

History of Operant Conditioning

Though he improved and formed the theory of operant conditioning, it wasn’t a novel idea. It is based on Thorndike’s laws of effect. Thorndike stated that the more often an association is practised, the stronger it becomes. Later he explained that a satisfying state of affairs strengthens an association but that an annoying state of affairs does not always weaken one. Thorndike didn’t research nor care about the origin of the behaviour, only that it was controlled by its consequences.

Inspired by Thorndike he coined the term operant behaviour. What Thorndike called instrumental behaviour Skinner called Operant behaviour because it operates on the environment in such a way as to produce consequences (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013). Thorndike’s main focus was the amount of time it took for the animal to escape. However, Skinner aimed to identify interval and reinforcement schedules. With the rate of responding in mind, he created his lever box which we now commonly call the Skinner box.

Behaviour Types 

Skinner divided behaviour into two types: 

• Operant Behaviour: Operant behaviour is voluntary and conscious. This is based on past experiences. An individual chooses to behave or act a certain way to get the desired result. Some may occur impulsively while some may be purposeful but the result would predict whether that behaviour will occur again or not. For example, if your parents promised you a new game for scoring well in exams you are likely to be more motivated and study harder. 
• Respondent Behaviour: The respondent’s behaviour is unconscious. It is a type of behaviour that cannot be controlled and is reflexive. For example, pulling your hand back after touching something hot or salivating at the sight or thought of your favourite food. Respondent behaviours are involuntary and are usually impossible to control. 

Components of Operant Conditioning

Depending on the type of reinforcement a behaviour can be induced or diminished. Skinner introduced four key components of Operant Conditioning: 

1. Positive Reinforcement: According to Skinner positive reinforcement involves providing a stimulus that is considered rewarding or favourable by the individual. The reward or pleasant stimulus strengthens the behaviour, leading to the repetition of the desired behaviour (Mcleod, 2024). 

• Primary Positive Reinforcers: Stimulus that are not learned and are necessary for survival are called primary reinforcers. These include biological needs such as food and water. 
• Secondary Positive Reinforcers: Stimulus that are not innate but are necessary to fulfil primary needs are called secondary reinforcers. For example, money, political power or good grades are not biological needs but are necessary to survive. Skinner placed a hungry rat in a box that contained a lever that dropped food pellets. While the rat was exploring it accidentally pressed the level and received food pellets. Eventually, it learned to press the lever whenever it was hungry. Hence the behaviour was strengthened through positive reinforcement. 

2. Negative Reinforcement: Stimulus that is considered undesirable or unpleasant followed by attempts to terminate the discomfort. Behaviour is strengthened to avoid an aversive situation. To demonstrate negative reinforcement Skinner placed a rat in a box that emitted an electric current. Similarly, while it was exploring the rat accidentally pressed the lever that turned off the current. Later as soon as the rat was subjugated to electric current it would head straight for the lever. 

3. Positive Punishment: Positive punishment is used to reduce or diminish undesirable behaviour. It reduces behaviour by adding an unpleasant stimulus immediately after the target behaviour. For example, a teacher sends a noisy student out of the class after he starts disturbing other students. 

4. Negative Punishment: It involves, removing a desirable or rewarding stimulus after the target behaviour. By preventing the individual from getting what they wanted the target behaviour is reduced. For example, a parent takes away dessert after the child refuses to eat her vegetables. 

Examples 

Let’s consider a few scenarios to get a better understanding of how operant conditioning affects behaviour: 

1. Workplace Productivity

• Scenario: An employee consistently meets deadlines and sales targets.
• Positive Reinforcement: The boss awards him with a bonus and a special title to appreciate him. 
• Result: He feels appreciated and strives to perform better. 

2. Academic Achievements

• Scenario: A student improves their grades in a difficult subject. 
• Positive Reinforcements: Her parents congratulate her and reward her with a new video game. 
• Results: The student continues to study hard and get good grades. 

3. Parenting

• Scenario: A child regularly forgets to do his chores. 
• Negative Reinforcement: The parents put him in time out which makes him miss play time. 
• Result: He remembers to clean his room regularly to avoid time out. 

Operant Conditioning is a powerful tool to systematically change or increase the frequency of a desirable behaviour. By strategically applying negative and positive reinforcements individuals can influence behaviours and build healthy habits. From improving workplace productivity to pet training, operant conditioning offers practical and versatile techniques to modify and learn behaviour. B.F Skinner’s theory continues to serve as a framework for researchers to develop new techniques to shape behaviour. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who is the father of operant conditioning? 

B.F Skinner is known as the father of operant conditioning, he expanded on Thorndike’s work to explain how behaviour can be strengthened or weakened through reinforcements.

2. What are the applications of operant conditioning? 

Operant conditioning can be applied in various areas of life, such as discipline, academic and work settings. It can be used to promote desirable behaviour and reduce undesirable ones. 

3. What is the basis of operant conditioning? 

The basic principle behind operant conditioning is that a stimulus leads to a behaviour which leads to a consequence. 

4. What is the goal of operant conditioning? 

Its primary goal is to reinforce desirable behaviours and build good habits through positive reinforcement or rewards and eliminate undesirable behaviour or bad habits.