At the turn of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler were brought together by a shared passion: uncovering what lies beneath the surface of conscious experience. They began as colleagues, but their paths diverged as each developed a distinct theory of the unconscious.
Their theories grew out of clinical observations, personal struggles, and ideological clashes. Understanding their differences and where they overlapped gives us important insights about how early psychology evolved and how it continues to shape our understanding of the human mind today. Let’s begin by gaining a general understanding of each Psychologist’s views on the unconscious.
Freud’s Views on the Unconscious
Freud was the first to popularise the idea that much of mental life happens outside conscious awareness. To him, the unconscious is not just a passive storehouse in our mind. The unconscious is a system that actively represses unwanted desires and traumatic memories. Freud wrote, “The unconscious is the true psychic reality; in its innermost nature it is as much unknown to us as the reality of the external world” (The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900).
The Structure of the Mind Model
Freud’s model divides the mind into three levels of consciousness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious includes everything we are currently aware of. The preconscious contains information that is not presently in awareness but can be accessed. The unconscious holds repressed material, much of which is rooted in childhood experiences. Freud later introduced a structural model consisting of the id, ego, and superego. In this model, the unconscious remains the seat of primitive drives, particularly those related to sexuality and aggression.
Repression and Conflict
Freud emphasised the ongoing conflict between the id, ego, and superego. Unacceptable impulses from the id are often repressed by the ego under pressure from the superego, leading to internal tension, anxiety, and symptoms such as neuroses. In Civilisation and Its Discontents, Freud argued that repression is necessary for maintaining social order, but it comes at the cost of psychological well-being.
Therapeutic Approach
Freud’s therapeutic approach was centred on making the unconscious conscious. His methods included free association, dream interpretation (which he called “the royal road to the unconscious”), and the analysis of slips, fantasies, and transference. One of his famous statements was, “Where id was, there ego shall be.” The ultimate goal of therapy was to achieve insight and resolve internal conflicts stemming from repressed material.
Jung’s Views on the Unconscious
Carl Jung, initially Freud’s protégé, parted ways with him over key differences. Jung disagreed with Freud’s singular focus on sexuality as the root of neurosis and with his limited view of the unconscious. Jung believed that the unconscious was not merely a repository of repressed material but also a rich source of personal development and inner guidance.
Two Levels: Personal and Collective
Jung proposed a layered structure of the unconscious. The personal unconscious consists of forgotten or repressed memories and emotions. Beyond this lies the collective unconscious. This is a deeper, universal layer of the psyche shared across all humans. This collective unconscious contains archetypes, which are inherited patterns or symbols that influence human behaviour across cultures and generations.
He explained, “The collective unconscious is a part of the psyche which can be distinguished from a personal unconscious by the fact that it does not derive from personal experience and is not a personal acquisition” (The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 1959).
Core Archetypes
Jung identified several core archetypes. The Shadow represents the parts of ourselves we deny or reject. The Anima and Animus refer to the unconscious feminine and masculine aspects within each person. The Self is the totality of the psyche and the ultimate goal of psychological development, a process Jung called individuation.
Dreams and Symbols
While Freud viewed dreams as masked wish fulfilment, Jung believed they conveyed meaningful messages from the unconscious. He saw dreams as tools for restoring psychological balance. During his breakdown in 1913, Jung experienced vivid dreams and visions that he interpreted as symbolic truths, many of which he documented in The Red Book.
Therapeutic Approach
Jungian therapy aims at individuation. Individuation refers to the integration of conscious and unconscious aspects of the self. Rather than viewing the unconscious as a problem to be solved, Jung saw it as a creative partner in the journey toward wholeness.
Adler’s Views on the Unconscious
Alfred Adler broke away from both Freud and Jung, rejecting Freud’s emphasis on sexual drives and Jung’s focus on archetypes and mysticism. Adler developed Individual Psychology, where the unconscious is seen as a strategic tool used to strive toward personal goals, often in response to early experiences of inferiority.
Inferiority and Compensation
Adler observed that children often experience a sense of physical weakness or dependency, which he called organ inferiority. This leads to psychological inferiority, prompting individuals to unconsciously develop strategies to compensate. When this compensation is exaggerated, it may manifest as a desire to dominate or feel superior to others. He famously stated, “To be a human being means to feel oneself inferior” (Understanding Human Nature, 1927).
Style of Life and Fictional Goals
According to Adler, by the age of five, individuals form a distinctive “style of life”—a habitual way of thinking, feeling, and acting. This is influenced by family dynamics, birth order, and early environmental factors. People are also motivated by “fictional final goals,” imagined ideals like perfection or success. Though not real in a literal sense, these goals shape one’s direction and choices in life.
Social Interest
Adler differed from Freud and Jung in his strong emphasis on social connectedness. He believed that a healthy individual should develop Gemeinschaftsgefühl, or community feeling. True mental health involves striving not only for personal growth but also for meaningful contribution to society. Adlerian therapy focuses on uncovering unconscious goals and redirecting them in socially constructive ways.
A Comparative Analysis
To better understand their contributions, it’s helpful to compare how each theorist conceptualised the unconscious mind, its development, its function, and the goals of therapy.
What Is the Unconscious?
Freud viewed the unconscious as a repressive system containing unacceptable desires. Jung expanded this idea, seeing it as a dual structure composed of both personal experiences and collective archetypes. Adler, meanwhile, regarded the unconscious as a tool for pursuing life goals, especially to compensate for inferiority. All three agreed that human behaviour is significantly influenced by unconscious processes. However, Freud focused on repression, Jung on symbolic meaning, and Adler on purposeful striving.
How Does the Unconscious Form?
Freud believed the unconscious formed through early conflicts and traumas, primarily in childhood. Jung included both personal experiences and inherited symbols in his explanation. Adler emphasised the role of early life challenges and how individuals respond to them through compensation.
While all three emphasised the formative role of childhood, their interpretations diverged. Freud highlighted trauma, Jung introduced the idea of myth and collective memory, and Adler stressed agency and the drive for mastery.
What Does the Unconscious Do?
According to Freud, the unconscious suppresses conflicts and gives rise to neuroses. Jung saw it as a guide in the process of individuation and psychological development. Adler believed the unconscious directs behaviour through strategic life goals.
All three acknowledged that the unconscious shapes behaviour and mental health, but they differed in tone. Freud saw it as a source of dysfunction, Jung as a source of depth and meaning, and Adler as a vehicle for purpose.
Therapeutic Aims
Freud aimed to bring repressed material into awareness to reduce conflict. Jung’s goal was to achieve integration through symbols, dreams, and inner exploration. Adler sought to identify unconscious goals and reorient them toward socially useful outcomes.
Each theorist valued increased awareness, but their paths differed. Freud pursued insight into internal conflict, Jung focused on wholeness and self-realisation, and Adler emphasised goal clarification and social contribution.
Personal Experiences that Shaped Their Theories
Freud’s Self-Analysis
Freud’s own dreams, as documented in his book The Interpretation of Dreams, provided the foundation of his theory. He analysed his fears, desires, and conflicts, especially his relationship with his father, to construct his model of repression and wish fulfilment.
Jung’s Confrontation with the Unconscious
After breaking away from Freud, Jung experienced a personal crisis, which he called a “creative illness.” He turned inward, recording visions and fantasies that led to the formulation of the collective unconscious and archetypes.
Adler’s Childhood Struggles
Adler was a sickly child, nearly dying of pneumonia at age five. These early experiences of vulnerability likely informed his theory of inferiority and compensation. His exposure to working-class patients also shaped his emphasis on social interest over inner conflict.
Conclusion
Freud, Jung, and Adler all agreed that the conscious mind tells only part of the story. But what lay beneath and how it operated was a matter of great disagreement. Their theories are not interchangeable. But taken together, they offer a broader picture of the unconscious. And more than a century later, they continue to shape how we think about what we don’t know we’re thinking.
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FAQs
Did all three agree on anything?
Despite their differences, all three theorists agreed that unconscious processes have a significant influence on human thoughts, emotions, and behaviour. They also believed that becoming more aware of these unconscious patterns could lead to personal change and growth.
What did each theorist believe caused problems in the unconscious?
According to Freud, problems arise when unacceptable impulses are repressed, leading to internal conflict and anxiety. Jung believed difficulties emerged when the conscious and unconscious parts of the psyche were out of balance, which could disrupt psychological harmony. Adler, meanwhile, focused on mistaken life goals or overcompensation strategies formed in response to early inferiority, which could lead people off track.
How did they differ in their views on childhood’s role?
All three believed childhood experiences were crucial in shaping the unconscious, but they emphasised different aspects. Freud focused on childhood trauma and unresolved conflicts. Jung acknowledged early life, but gave equal importance to inherited psychological structures. Adler emphasised how a child reacts to feelings of weakness or inferiority, shaping a personal strategy or “style of life” by age five.
References
Kaufmann, W. (1992). Freud, Adler, and Jung: Discovering the Mind, Volume Three. Transaction Publishers.
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