Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud’s Structural Theory of the Psyche

Imagine that it is midnight and you have found the last piece of cake in the fridge. One part of you is screaming, “It’s mine!” while another is whispering, “You already brushed your teeth.”, and the third part is telling you that this was supposed to be your sister’s piece. Such a scenario is what Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, would call an inner “dialogue” of the personality (Freud, 1923/1961).

More than a century ago, he theorised that the human psyche is not a unity but consists of three different, yet interacting, principles. He called them the id, ego, and superego. Although many of his theoretical models have been challenged, his teaching continues to be one of the most prominent in psychology. This article aims to discuss the nature of these three principles, their interaction, and the validity of the concept in modern science.

Freud and The Unconscious Mind

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician and psychoanalyst who worked and taught in Vienna in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He became famous for his interpretation of a number of abnormal psychology phenomena that were not widely known before him. He proposed that the working mechanisms of the human psyche are not conscious but hidden from us in our unconsciousness and affect our decision-making (Freud, 1900/1953).

For example, his book “The Interpretation of Dreams” discusses the nature of dreams and their connection to unconscious desires (Freud, 1900/1953). The theory of the unconscious has since become a cornerstone of psychoanalysis, despite facing significant criticism. The easiest way to understand the nature of the unconscious is to think about one’s own desires and dreams.

For instance, a person may feel suddenly irritated with a friend without understanding the reason for such feelings; later, however, they might realise that this was due to some past, unresolved conflict. In other words, there were conscious thoughts and feelings that the individual could not recognise as such at the time.

In 1923, Sigmund Freud published “The Structural Theory of Psychoanalysis,” a work in which he divided the psyche into three structural components: the id, ego, and superego (Freud, 1923/1961). Also in turn, these three principles are based on a single unconscious process but interact in a complicated manner to form a unity.

Furthermore, none of them is physiological entities but rather psychoanalytic constructs. Taken together, they allow for understanding the mechanism of the psyche at a structural level. It is essential to note that such a theory is primarily based on clinical observations; thus, many of its aspects are difficult to test experimentally. In addition, it is also important to recognise that much of the language used by psychoanalysis is obsolete (Westen, 1998).

Thus, although concepts such as repression and unconscious processes are still useful, many of the details of the theory developed by Freud have since been revised. That being said, his ideas still had and continue to have a considerable influence on the field, as indicated by recent studies (Solms, 2018). The theory of the psyche structure allows us to talk about the complexity of the psychological processes taking place within one individual. Moreover, it helps to understand the nature of one’s own decision-making process.

The Id: “I Want It”

The id is the oldest and the most primitive part of the psyche that is present in each human being. It contains our desires, instincts, and urges (Freud, 1923/1961). For instance, the tendency to eat when one is hungry is an illustration of the id. As Freudian theory explains, the id operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks satisfaction. Tries to avoid discomfort no matter what. According to Freud (1923/1961), this part of the mind works without thinking about consequences.

The id is completely unconscious, which means it cannot be accessed directly. It does not follow logic or reason. Its actions are driven by instinct and desire. This makes it irrational in nature. The activity of the id is apparent in many manifestations of our daily lives.

The desire to do something wrong comes all of a sudden and cannot always be resisted. Also, the desire can make you want to call your friend right in the middle of class. The desire may make you shout at your parents when you feel angry. The desire can also make you want to eat a bag of chips while you are watching TV.

In other words, whenever one acts on an impulse, the id is the one responsible for these actions. The good news is that according to Freud, the id is not necessarily evil; in fact, the instinct for self-preservation is also a part of it. Without the id, a person would have no motivation to live. The id is the driving force behind all our actions, but, on its own, it is not capable of fulfilling all our desires. The reason for this is simple: the pleasure principle rarely considers objective circumstances, and the id does not know the concept of impossibility. This is where the second component of the psyche, the ego, comes into play.

The Ego: The Reality Manager

According to Freud, the ego is the part of the psyche that negotiates between the id and the superego (Freud, 1923/1961). It develops from the id, but it is different from it in almost every aspect. For instance, while the id only knows the pleasure principle, the ego follows the reality principle. In other words, it considers one’s desires but also assesses the feasibility of fulfilling them. It is the ego that allows us to delay gratification and makes us choose the lesser of two evils. It is important to note, however, that, unlike the id, the ego is only partially conscious.

Using the example of the last piece of cake, the ego would say something like “Well, that piece of cake is too big to be eaten alone, but tomorrow, after the lunch break, I could share it with you.” In other words, it seeks a compromise between what the id wants and what the superego considers morally right.

The ego is like a rider that has to control a horse (the id): while the horse is strong, the rider’s task is to make it go in the desired direction (Freud, 1923/1961). Sometimes they work together, but sometimes the horse just runs wild.

Modern neuroscience has attempted to interpret the concept of ego from a biological perspective. The default mode network, a set of brain regions that are activated when a person daydreams or looks inward, has been considered by Carhart-Harris and Friston (2010) as a region associated with ego. Interestingly enough, the default mode network is also active during REM sleep, which is one of the stages of the sleep cycle during which we dream.

Thus, the hypothesis has emerged that the activity of the default mode network is closely related to the processes described by Freud as “primary process,” or primitive thinking (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010). These are, of course, only theories, but they demonstrate that the concept of the ego is not only relevant but also has potential biological substrates.

Read More: What is Psychology?

The Superego: “I Am Better”

The third component of the psyche is the superego; it is a source of our moral beliefs and judgment. In other words, we know what is right and what is wrong because of the superego. The superego develops from the id, and it is the “latest achievement” of the psyche (Freud, 1923/1961). Its emergence is inextricably linked with the formation of a child’s consciousness, as a child internalises certain moral principles through education, socialisation, and parental authority. Thus, the superego is not a fixed system but varies from person to person depending on their upbringing and personal life experience.

One of the functions of the superego is to regulate the activity of the id. The id rarely considers moral consequences, and this is where the superego comes in. It contains our moral values, and it actively works to prevent us from doing evil. At the same time, the superego has two aspects. The first one is the conscience, which tells us what is good and what is evil.

The second is the ego ideal, which constantly compares a person’s behaviour with their moral principles and encourages them to be better (Freud, 1923/1961). Thus, the superego is what makes us feel guilty after doing something we consider wrong. Even when you have not been caught doing something bad, it is the superego that makes you ashamed and stops you from doing it again.

The influence of the superego on the psyche is significant, which is why it is often regarded as a driving force behind human behaviour. However, according to Freud, it is not always beneficial to us. He claimed that in many cases, the superego was too strict with people and that its demands were unrealistic. Some of the strictest moral norms instilled by it are even questionable in contemporary society. In addition, a too-rigid superego makes people feel guilty about things that should not be regarded as wrong. In addition, people with overly self-demanding superegos fall victim to perfectionism and often experience unwavering guilt and anxiety.

The concepts of id, ego, and superego can be used to understand many of the phenomena described by psychoanalysis. According to the structural theory, the id contains our desires and instincts, the ego seeks to satisfy them within the framework of the reality principle, and the superego evaluates whether these actions are morally permissible (Freud, 1923/1961).

These three principles interact in a complex manner, and their relationship is far from harmonious. The ego often finds itself in an uncomfortable position as it has to negotiate between the id and superego. According to Freud, such situations lead the ego to feelings of anxiety, which in turn prompt it to turn to defence mechanisms (Freud, 1936/1937).

Defence Mechanisms and Modern Criticism

The concept of defence mechanisms is one of the most famous and prominent aspects of psychoanalysis. They are used by the ego to reduce the pressure from the id and the superego. We may use defence mechanisms involuntarily and unconsciously to protect ourselves from unpleasant feelings, thoughts, and memories

They are numerous, and some of the most common ones include denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, and rationalisation (Freud, 1936/1937). For instance, denial is the refusal to accept the truth, while projection refers to assigning one’s thoughts and feelings to other people. Displacement is similar to projection but refers to emotions; for example, one may feel angry with their boss but displace this anger onto their family. Rationalisation is an attempt to justify unacceptable behaviour with reasonable arguments; for instance, a person who has failed an exam may claim that the professor did not know what they were talking about.

Defence mechanisms have been a topic of much debate among psychologists and philosophers. Many of them have argued that they do not have sufficient empirical evidence. However, some researchers suggest that neurobiological processes may explain certain defence mechanisms. In particular, Carhart-Harris and Friston (2010) attempted to correlate psychoanalytic defence mechanisms with the default mode network.

Westen (1998) argues that researchers have questioned and criticised most of Freud’s theories from philosophical and empirical perspectives, particularly the concept of the unconscious mind, which critics consider vague and lacking substantial evidence. Nevertheless, despite the controversy surrounding the theory, it remains one of the most fascinating concepts in psychology.

Conclusion

When considering the principles of human nature, it is impossible not to mention Sigmund Freud and his theory of the structure of the psyche. It assumes that each of us has three components of personality: the id, ego, and superego. The id represents our primitive instincts and desires, the ego is the mediator between the id and superego, and the superego is the source of our moral principles.

These three sides of the psyche interact to produce a unity that we call the human mind. The id only cares about our desires and wants them satisfied immediately, while the superego is concerned with morality. The ego has to deal with the two but, according to Freud, often fails to do so. As a result, people experience anxiety and resort to defence mechanisms to help them against these unpleasant thoughts and emotions.

There is no doubt that the psychoanalytic view of the psyche is a complex one which may be counterintuitive on occasion. Yet at the same time it is fascinating and may lead to some valuable insights into the human psyche. Moreover, contemporary research supports some aspects of it, such as the unconscious mind.

References +

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